| |
 |
|
|
|
Preface |
A
small but noble pantheon of divinities symbolizing
Buddhist philosophy and aestheticism, Seokguram
is a structure of sublime beauty culminating religious
belief, science and fine arts which flowered in
the golden age of Asian art
Overlooking the East Sea far ahead beyond the mountain
ridges from the southeastern tip of the Korean Peninsula,
Seokguram stands as a proud testimony to Korea's
brilliant tradition of classical Buddhist sculpture.
A small but noble pantheon of divinities symbolizing
Buddhist philosophy and aestheticism, the eighth-century
cave temple is a structure of sublime beauty culminating
religious belief, science and fine arts which flowered
in the golden age of Asian art. Seokguram is located
near the tummit of Mt. Tohamsan, east of the historic
city of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla dynasty (57B.C.-A.D.935) |
|
| |
It
is reached after an hour-long walk up a steep, winding
mountain path over some 4km from Bulguksa, another
famous temple dating to the eighth century when
Silla was at the peak of its strength. The capital
of Silla rivalled in splendor the Dang capital of
Jangan and its culture shared in the international
character of Dang at this time when all of East
Asia enjoyed unprecedented peace and prosperity.
Buddhism first reached Korea in the fourth century
through China but it truly flowered only after the
court of Silla officially recognized it as the state
religion.
After Silla unified the peninsula in the mid-seventh
century by conquering the rival states of Goguryeo
and Baekje, Buddhism not only served a religious
function but was looked upon as a protective force.
Temples of magnificent scale were erected in and
around Gyeongju as they were regarded as a supernatural
defense against external threats and bastions of
national consciousness. According to the scant historical
records available today, both Seokguram and Bulguksa,
the two supreme accomplishments of Silla Buddhist
architecture, were built under the supervision of
Kim Dae-seong, who came from the royal family and
served as prime minister under the reign of King
Gyeongdeok.
The construction began in 742, the year after Kim
resigned from his top position in court. He died
in 774 without seeing the completion of the historic
projects several years later under the reign of
King Hyegong. As a complement to Bulguksa, which
was dedicated to the present generation, the granite
temple of Seokguram is said to have been intended
to honor those who had been Kim's parents in his
previous life. Whoever the patron or whatever the
motivation, Seokguram was apparently designed as
a private chapel for royalty considering its scale,
philosophical depth and aesthetic standard, whereas
Bulguksa, a grand complex of various worship halls
and pagodas, was intended as a state monastery to
serve the public.
Too small and cozy to have been conceived as a place
for congregation in spite of the enormous resources
required for its construction, the grotto shrine
represents a pinnacle of religious sculpture not
only in Korea but in all of East Asia.
One of Korea's most popular tourist destinations
drawing thousands of visitors from home and abroad
daily, Seokguram recalls the long journey Buddhism
made from its homeland of India through central
Asia and China to Korea. A gem of ancient Buddhist
architecture punctuating the eastern terminal of
the Silk Road, the shrine testifies to the enthusiasm
and sacrifice of early Korean monk pilgrims who
risked their lives to experience firsthand the exotic
traditions of their faith in the faroff land of
India. Buddhist grottos are generally believed to
have originated in ancient India.
They are divided largely into two Kinds according
to form and purpose: caitya, literally a "sanctuary"
or a hall containing a sacred object to be worshipped
such as a small stupa or a Buddha image; and vihara,
a monastery or shelter for monks, often with chapels
for images or a stupa placed in the central court
which also served as a place for instruction. |
|
|
| |
Grottos
in th caitya style were later adopted by the chinese in
the hundreds of caves stretching over a mile along the
cliffs of Dunhuang and the sandstone hills of Yungang.
Seokguram, with a rectangular antechamber leading to a
circular domed main chamber, resembles ancient Indian
cave temples.
Though inspired by the cave temples of ancient India and
China, Seokguram differs in construction to its prototypes
which were mostly built by digging into hillsides and
carving on natural rocks. korea's topographical features
comprising solid rock beds probably made it impossible
to import the idea of the sculptors of Karle or Ajanta,
who carved thousands of figures, stupas and apse ends
out of the soft conglomerate rock and clay. Instead, an
incredible artificial cave was assembled with granite
on the heights of a mountain some 750meters above sea
level, an architectural technique without precedent the
world over. |
| |
|
Apex of Korean Buddhist Sculpture |
| Highlighted
by the majestic seated Buddha with a serene, all-knowing
expression as the primary object of worship, Seokguram
enshrines an impressive assembly of 40 different
divinities embodying various aspects of Buddhist
teaching. The grotto chapel, in spite of the diversity
of the icons ensconced, has a unique feeling of
peace and unity resulting in an intense spiritual
impression. The prominent skill for handling solid
granite aside, modern scientists investigating the
source of this rare sensation of sacred harmony
discovered that the Silla architects employed the
geometric theories of the golden rectangle and symmetry.
Seokguram is meticulously designed to guide the
faithful into the holy and of the Buddha, a mysterious
spiritual journey to the realm of nirvana in a limited
span of time and space. In ancient times when there
was no transportation, everybody was supposed to
walk up the rugged, serpentine mountain path. The
journey was to begin at the foot of Mt.Tohamsan
which was considered a holy mountain by the people
of Silla, or, symbolically, it begin from Bulguksa
which straddles the mountain's western midslope.
After climbing up the mountain for an hour or so,
the pilgrim was to quench his thirst with the icy
cold water gushing up from a fountain in front of
the shrine Passing the arched entrance into the
rectangular antechamber and proceeding through a
slightly narrower corridor, their walls decorated
with a legion of bas-relief images of various guardian
deities, the worshiper would leave the secular world
behind and abe prepared to face to Buddha in the
main rotunda. An image of serenity and power, the
Buddha is seated cross-legged on a lotus throne,
with his eyes half-closed in meditation and a faint
smile on his lips. The Buddha is surrounded by bodhisattvas,
arhats and ancient Indian gods carved in high relief
on the wall of the circular hall. Here the ancient
Silla architects probably borrowed the concept of
the early Indian stupas and the mounded graves of
Gyeongju but in a reversed form to create a "hollowed
stupa." Inside the shrine, with the dim light
making subtle changes to the texture of the granite
carvings as he moves, the worshiper could walk around
the Buddha and possibly face himself and experience
nirvana to realize that life and death can be one
in the void of nothingness. The construction method
of Seokguram remains a wonder for modern architects.
Hundreds of granite pieces of various shapes and
sizes were assembled to form the cave. No mortar
was used; the stones are held together by stone
rivets. Natural ventilation was provided to control
the temperature and humidity inside the cave, though
the wisdom of ancient architects failed to be conveyed
in the process of its preservation in modern times.
The main rotunda, believed to stand for heave in
contrast to the earth which is represented by the
rectangular antechamber, measures 6.84 to 6.58 meters
in diameter. It has a drum built of 10 granite slabs,
upon which 15 granite panels with sculpted images
of bodhisattvas, arhats and ancient Indian gods
form the circular wall. Above these icons and separated
by lintel, there are 10 niches, each containing
miniature statues of seated bodhisattvas and faithfuls.
Slightly tilted toward the back from the center
of the rotunda is a round lotus pedestal, on which
th Buddha sits facing the antechamber across the
corridor. The domed ceiling is capped with a round
granite plate decorated with a lotus design. |
|
| |
|
The Buddha and Other Deities |
The
elegant and majestic main buddha of Seokguram epitomizes
the aestheticism of Korean Buddhist sculpture. An
enigmatic combination of masculine strength and
feminine beauty and a personification of divine
and human natures, the Buddha represents Korean
Buddhist sculpture at the zenith of classical realism.
Chiselled out of a single granite block, the 3.5-meter-high
Buddha image envisages Seokgamoni, the Historic
Buddha, at the moment of enlightenment. He is seated
in a cross-legged position on a 1.34-meter-high
lotus pedestal, with his right foot exposed as it
lays across his left knee. His hands are poised
in a mudar touching the earth to call it to witness
his realization of enlightenment.
The Buddha has tightly curled hair and a distinct
usnisa, the protuberance on the top of the head
symbolizing his supreme wisdom. Beneath the broad
forehead the double eyebrows are shaped like crescent
moons and the eyes are half-shut gazing vaguely
ahead in deep meditation. He wears a faint smile
and his body is rounded and voluminous as though
inflated by an inner force.
The robust torso is draped in a flowing robe with
gentle folds exposing the right shoulder in respect
of early Indian customs. The drapery is obviously
a Korean interpretation of the Indian prototype
of a tightly-clinging robe. The fan-shaped folds
about the legs also indicate the Gupta-period Indian
influence. The details of the robe covering the
right arm and chest are realistically portrayed.
The lotus pedestal on which the Buddha sits consists
of three sections. The upper and lower sections
are round and decorated with lotus petals, while
the narrower central section is octagonal with eight
small pillars supporting the upper section at each
point of the octagon. The pedestal is place on a
round foundation. A big granite roundel a adorned
with lotus petals around the rim is set on the wall
behind the Buddha, creating the illusion of an aureole
around his head. This is one of the distinct features
of Seokguram. The nimbus is normally attached to
the back or the head of most other Buddha images
The Buddha lord it over an assembly of three bodhisattvas,
ten disciples and two Hindu gods carved in relief
on the wall of the rotunda as well as the ten miniature
statues of bodhisattvas, saints and faithfuls seated
in the niches above, at the level of his eyes. On
the two wall of the corridor leading out to the
antechamber are relief figures of the Four Heavenly
Kings, two, on each side, Two powerful bas-relief
images of Vajrapanis, the fierce guardians of temples,
stand vigil on either side of the entrance to the
passageway and the Eight Guardian Deities decorate
the walls of the antechamber, four on each side.
Aside from the main Buddha, the Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara,
or the Bodhisattva of Compassion, standing at the
center of the back wall of the rotunda, probably
draws the greatest admiration among all the deities
in the shrine. This graceful Avalokitesvara, standing
2.18 meters high on an opulent lotus base, wears
a crown decorated with the heads of ten bodhisattvas
and a central Amitabha, or the Buddha of Boundless
Light. He is dressed in flowing robes and decked
with resplendent jewelry. He holds a vase containing
a single lotus blossom in his left hand and a long
beaded necklace in his right hand, Standing right
at the back of the Buddha, this is the only figure
facing straight ahead while the faces of all other
images are portrayed obliquely.
Ten arhats, or the disciples of Seokgamoni, are
lined up beside the Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara,
five on each side. They have distinctly different
countenances with sharp noses and deep-set eyes
and bony bodies that are easily traced to the Indian
ascetics depicted under Greek influence. Wearing
ankle-length saris, each of the shaven-headed arhats
holds a small object like a book, a bottle or an
alms bowl, or has hands poised in a symbolic gesture.
Two elegant bodhisattvas stand next to the arhats,
one on either side. They are the popular Manjusri,
the representation of divine wisdom, who holds a
small cup in his hand, and his companion Samantabhadra
holding a book. Next come the two famous Indian
devas, Mahabrahmanah(Brahma) and Sakradevanam Indra(Indra),
with their egg-shaped haloes.
Standing to the left of the entrance of the rotunda,
Brahma holds a whisk in his right hand and a small
bottle in his left hand. Indra, standing on the
opposite side to the right of the entrance, holds
a whisk in his right hand and a ritual thunderbolt
in his left hand The corridor leading to the main
hall features the Four Heavenly Kings, the guardians
of the four corners of the heavens who are often
found at Korea temple gate. They are presented two
on each side of the corridor. They are clad in armor
and flowing robes, each trampling a demon and carrying
an object such as a sword or a small stupa. The
demons vary in shape and posture. Traces of paint
remain in the recessed portions of the demons.
Two horrific Vajrapanis guard the rotunda on the
outside of the corridor, one on each side of its
entrance. Deriving from Indian mythology, the fierce
temple protectors with bulging eyes and big mouths,
look intimidating, each raising one arm with the
hand clenched in a tight fist. The muscular torsos
are naked and a skirt is hung at the waist. Exhibiting
terrifying strength, they are carved in deep relief
and almost appear to stand apart from the wall. |
|
| |
|
Legend of a Filial son |
In
the small village of Moryang-ri on the western outskirts
of Gyeongju, there lived a poor woman named Gyeongjo
who had an odd-looking son. The villagers made fun
of the child as he had a big head and a flat forehead,
that looked like a wall. They called him Dae-seong,
meaning "big wall."
The boy's mother was too poor to feed him so she
gave him to a rich neighbor named Bogan as a farm
hand. Dae-seong worked so hard that his master was
moved and gave him a small piece of a rice paddy.
About this time , a virtuous monk named Jeomgae
from Heungnyongsa temple, visited Bogan and asked
for a donation for a big ceremony at his temple.
As Bogan handed him fifty rolls of hemp cloth, the
monk bowed in appreciation and said that the Buddha
would repay his generosity by blessing him ten thousand
times the worth of his donation.
Dae-seong overheard this and ran home and told his
mother, "Now we are poor, and if we do not
give something to the temple, we will be poorer
in our next lives. Why don't we give our little
rice field for the ceremony so that we may have
a great reward in our afterlives?" His mother
readily consented and donated their rice field to
the temple.
Dae-seong died a few months later. On the night
of his death, a voice from heaven was heard above
the house of Prime Minister Kim Mun-ryang. The voice
said that Dae-seong, a good boy from Moryang-ri,
would be born to Kim's family. Kim's wife conceived
at the time the heavenly voice was heard and gave
birth to a boy. The child kept his left hand tightly
clenched for seven day after his birth. When he
opened his fist at last, they found the two characters
for Dae-seong written in gold on his palm. They
gave him his old name and invited his mother of
his previous life to take care of him.
Dae-seong grew up into a strong man who loved hunting.
One day he climbed Mt.Tohamsan and there he killed
a big bear. As he was sleeping in a village at the
foot of the mountain that night, the bear's ghost
appeared in his dream and threatened to kill and
eat him unless he built a temple for him. Dae-seong
built a temple on the spot where he killed the bear
and named it Jangsusa, meaning the Temple of Long
Life. From that time he gave up hunting.
Dae-seong was moved by the heavenly grace. He built
the beautiful Bulguksa in memory of his parents
of the present life and the wonderful cave temple
of Seokguram for his parents of the previous life.
He invited the two distinguished monks Sillim and
Byohun to supervise these temples. He had his fathers
and mothers represented among the icons at these
temples in gratitude for bringing him up as a useful
man.
After the great stone Buddha for Seokguram was finished,
Dae-seong was working on a large piece of stone
for the ceiling of the main hall when it suddenly
broke into three pieces. He wept bitterly over this
and fell into sleep. During the night, gods descended
from heaven and restored the stone to its original
condition. Dae-seong awoke with joy and climbed
the southern peak of Mt.Tohamsan, where he burned
incense and worshiped the deities. People called
the place Hyangnyong, or Incense peak, thereafter.
The erudite monk historian lryeon(1206-1289) had
the wondrous skill of interweaving legend and fact
in his book which serves as an invaluable source
of information for students of early Korean history.
While most readers of his book today would find
it difficult to believe in the reincarnation of
Kim Dae-seong, visitors to Seokguram can see crack
dividing the round capstone on the main rotunda's
domed ceiling clearly into three pieces. South of
the temple, there also exists a peak called Hyangnyong.
Another important history book, Samguk Sagi(History
of the Three Kingdoms), compiled by Kim Bu-sik in
1145, identifies the founder of Bulguksa and Seokguram
as Kim Dae-seong who served as prime minister in
745-750 under King Gyeongdeok. He was the son of
Kim Mun-ryang who was also prime minister in 706-711
under King Seongdeok, according to the oldest extant
book on Korean historyl. |
|
| |
|
The Unsolved Questions of Preservation |
Seokguram
has had its share of turmoil in Korea's history
over the centuries. It lost much of its religious
and artistic splendor during the Joseon period (1392-1910)
when its Confucianoriented rulers suppressed Buddhism.
The remote mountain grotto was left seriously damaged
toward the turn of the century. It underwent repair
three times earlier this century under the japanese
colonial government.
The first round of repairs was carried out from
1913 to 1915. Without sufficient study of its structure,
the cave was almost completely dismantled and reassembled
and a fatal mistake was committed in the process.
The entire structure was encase with cement about
two meters thick, which resulted in water leaks
and erosion of the sculptures because the cave could
no longer "breathe."
Seokguram went through considerable "torture"
in the name of preservation in the following decades.
In 1917, drainage pipes were buried above the dome
to channel rainwater out of the cave. As the leaks
continued in spite of the pipes, however, another
round of repair was conducted in 1920 to 1923. Waterproof
asphalt was applied to the surface of the concrete
mass this time. But water continued to leak and
dew formed, and in 1927 the Japanese government-general
eventually employed the unthinkable method of spraying
hot stem on the granite surface to get rid of moss.
As the preservation of Seokguram continued to pose
serious problems with high humidity inside the shrine,
the government of the late President Park Jeong-hui
instructed an in-depth investigation of its structure
to be carried out in the early 1960s. Extensive
renovation was undertaken based on the study from
1962 to 1964. The problem of temperature and humidity
control was resolved to a remarkable extent by using
mechanical systems.
Nevertheless, the wooden superstructure built over
the antechamber remains a mind-boggling question
for many who believe Seokguram originally did not
have such a structure blocking the magnificent sunrise
over the East Sea from the view of Seokgamoni, aside
from cutting off the air flow into the cave. A glass
wall keeping the visitors from the main chamber
is another point of debate regarding the contradiction
concepts of the preservation of the shrine and its
availability for religious worship and aesthetic
appreciation.
Two statues in the niches of the wall of the main
chamber and a miniature marble pagoda which is believed
to have stood in front of the Eleven-faced Avalokitesvara
at the back of the Buddha image remain missing.
They disappeared in the early years of Japanese
occupation.
geographically removed from China by Goguryeo to
the north and Baekje to the west, Silla was the
last of the three ancient Korean Kingdoms to accept
Buddhism. But as soon as King Beopheung recognized
it as the state religion in 528, it spread quickly
through out the country, The 13th century historian
monk, lryeon, wrote that, by the mid-sixth century
in Gyeongju and its vicinity, "the golden roofs
of temples glittered against the sky like the Milky
Way and lotus-crowned pagodas stood in unending
lines like flights of wild geese."
All these temples vanished in the turbulent course
of history, but the description vividly conveys
how enthusiastically the early Buddhists erected
temples and pagodas around the capital of their
thriving kingdom. Today, Bulguksa offers a glimpse
of the splendor of Silla's state temples, although
all of its present wooden shrines are in the much
later Joseon style and much of its antique flavor
was lost in massive rehabilitation work carried
out in the 1970s. |
|
| |
|
|
at Haeinsa
Temple
